Madeiran Coastal Vegetation
The coastal slopes and cliffs of Madeira generally reach heights of about 100 m on the north coast and 300 m on the south coast but at Gabo Girao, west of Funchal, they reach a height of 540 m forming the second highest seacliffs in the world. On the volcanic rocks of the maritime fringes, just above high tide, the widespread halophytes, Crithmum maritimum and Plantago coronopus are frequently encountered, while less common associates include the Madeiran endemic shrub Helichrysum obconium (Asteraceae) and the Macaronesian endemic forb Lotus glaucus (Fabaceae). Further inland where the slopes are not too steep the indigenous vegetation consists of coastal thickets of the Madeiran endemics Echium nervosum (Boraginaceae), Euphorbia picatoria (Euphorbiaceae), Olea europaea subsp. maderensis (Oleaceae) and the Macaronesian endemic Globularia salicina (Globulariaceae). Other less common endemic shrubs here include Argyranthemum pinnatifidum, Artemisia argentea, Helichrysum melaleucum (Asteraceae), Asparagus umbellatus subsp. lowei (Celastraceae), Chamaemeles coriacea (Rosaceae), Sideritis candicans (Lamiaceae), Sideroxylon marmulan (Sapotaceae) and Visnea mocanera (Theaceae). The miniature shrub Plantago arborescens also thrives in the coastal zone. It is a macaronesian endemic with one subspecies in Madeira and one on the Canary Islands. Dracaena draco (Dracaenaceae), the dragon tree, is one of the few trees found near the coast, although it used to be much more common in the arid regions of Madeira and Porta Santo. The species is mainly confined to Macaronesia, but also occus in southern Morocco. Another small coastal endemic tree is Maytenus umbellatus (Celastraceae). Among coastal succulent plants are the two endemic houseleeks Aeonium glandulosum and A. glutinosum (Crassulaceae). The first forms a remarkable, single, flat rosette capable of sticking to vertical cliffs, whereas A. glutinosum forms a small bush. Sedum nudum is another endemic member of this family frequently found in coastal regions. Among herbaceous elements are Musschia aurea (Campanulaceae), several members of the Asteraceae, including endemic Sonchus ustulatus subsp. maderensis, the endemic brassica Matthiola maderensis (Brassicaceae) and the Macaronesian endemic Tolpis succulenta (Asteraceae).
Madeiran Laurel Forest (Laurissilva)
The name Madeira is the Portuguese word for wood and is reference to the fact that in former times most of the island was covered by laurel forest. During the Tertiary period laurel forests covered large parts of Europe but as the climate cooled they initially withdrew to the south and then became extinct on the mainland. The laurel forests of Macaronesia are relicts of this once extensive forest, although they are not identical to the former Tertiary forests of Europe since only species with airworthy seeds or those with seeds or fruit dispersed by birds eventually made it to these islands. Trees such as magnolias, maples and oaks with relatively heavy seeds never made it. Laurel forests in other parts of the world, such as southern China, southern Japan, Chile, Tierra del Fuego, Australia, Tasmania and southeastern Africa, are very different communities. Today Macaronesian laurel forests are confined to the Azores, Madeira and the western Canaries, but Madeira can boast the most extensive Macaronesian laurel forest in the world. Other parts of Macaronesia are too dry for laurissilva. On Madeira the dominant laurel trees are Apollonias barbujana, Laurus azorica (= L. canariensis), Ocotea foetens and Persica indica (Rosaceae). All are Macaronesian endemics except Laurus azorica, which can also be found in Morocco. This species can often be distinguished by the presence of the fungus Laurobasidium lauri, which grows on no other tree. Other trees include the Madeiran endemics Ilex perada subsp. perado (Aquifoliaceae), Sambucus lanceolata (Sambucaceae), Vaccinium padifolium (Ericaceae), and the Macaronesian endemics Clethra arborea (Clethraceae), Euphorbia mellifera (Euphorbiaceae), Ilex canariensis (Aquifoliaceae), Myrica faya (Myricaceae), Picconia excelsa (Oleaceae) and Salix canariensis (Salicaceae). All of these trees are usually covered in epiphytic plants particularly lichens and mosses, and ferns such as Davallia canariensis and the Macaronesian polypody Polypodium macaronesicum (Polypodiaceae). Epiphytic flowering plants are less conspicuous but may include the Madeiran endemic stonecrop Aichryson divaricatum (Crassulaceae). Amongst the varied shrubs are a number of colourful endemic species including a spectacular woody foxglove Isoplexis sceptrum (Scrophulariaceae), Sonchus fruticosus, Teline maderensis (Asteraceae), Teucrium betonicum (Lamiaceae), and the Macaronesian endemic Erysimum bicolor (Brassicaceae). The forest floor also supports a rich diversity of species including a variety of ferns like the giant Woodwardia radicans with fronds growing to more than 2 m. The typical flowering plants include various endemic species like Festuca donax (Poaceae), Geranium maderense (Geraniaceae), Pericallis aurita (Asteraceae), together with several Macronesian endemics like Cedronella canariensis (Lamiaceae) and Ranunculus cortusifolius (Ranunculaceae). A less conspicuous endemic is the tiny Sibthorpia peregrina (Madeiran moneywort) (Plantaginaceae), which is more at home among mosses and liverworts on moist rocks. Orchids are also a feature of this undergrowth and, in fact, four of Madeira’s five native orchids can be found in these forest including the two endemic species Dactylorhiza foliosa, which can reach heights of 80 cm, and the rare Goodyera macrophylla (Orchidaceae).
Madeiran Heath Forest
At altitudes above about 1300 m in the north and 1500 m in the south there is often a belt of heath forest characterized by the two tree heathers Erica arborea and the endemic Erica scoparia subsp. maderinicola (Ericaceae). It reaches a height of about 4 m but is often stunted. Other typical species include small trees like the endemic Sorbus maderensis (Sambucaceae) and endemic shrubs like Teucrium francoi (Lamiaceae) and Vaccinium padifolium (Ericaceae). The endemic shield fern Polystichum falcinellum (Dryopteridaceae) is also very characteristic of these forests. Reasonably undisturbed examples of these forests can be found, for example, around Pico Ruivo.
Madeiran High Mountain Vegetation
Above the heath forest low growing plants predominate such as the endemic dwarf shrub Erica maderensis (Ericaceae), although relatively tall stands of the endemic Echium candicans (Boraginaceae) can also be found. In coastal areas these plants have appressed hairs on their stems, but at high altitude they become spread open and their flowers become slightly darker. Other plants such as the endemic Viola paradoxa (Violaceae) seek protection in cracks, but many other species flourish on the exposed rocky slopes. Examples include Argyranthemum pinnatifidum subsp. montanum (Asteraceae), Armeria maderensis (Plumbaginaceae), and slightly surprisingly, the endemic rock orchid Orchis scopularum (Orchidaceae).
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