Iberian Quercus ilex/rotundifolia Forest
Holm oak Quercus ilex forest probably covered about two-thirds of the Iberian Peninsula at one time, extending over much of the lowlands and hills, but much has now been reduced to a maquis-like thicket. However, good examples still exist, for example, in the Catalan Hills. In Portugal and southern Spain, in areas of lower rainfall, the closely related, but endemic Quercus rotundifolia takes the place of holm oak. Characteristic shrubs of undisturbed holm oak forest are Arbutus unedo, Asparagus acutifolius, Bupleurum fruticosum, Cistus salvifolius, Coronilla juncea, Daphne gnidium, Jasminum fruticans, Juniperus oxycedrus, Juniperus phoenicea, Lonicera implexa, Pistacia terebinthus, Quercus coccifera, Teucrium fruticans and Viburnum tinus. Some of the endemic species found in these forests include Centaurea citricolor (Asteraceae), Paeonia broteroi (Paeoniaceae) and Thapsia maxima (Apiaceae). These have been recorded in the mixed oak forests of Sierra Morena, where holm oak occurs with Quercus suber cork oak and the endemic Lusitianian oak Quercus faginea (Fagaceae).
Iberian Quercus suber Forest
Cork oak Quercus suber forests are mainly found in the western Mediterranean and have their main concentration in Portugal and western Spain. They require a relatively moist climate and tend to replace holm oak forest on poor, more acidic, stony soils, where the slow growth of these trees gives the best quality cork. In plantations this is harvested every 8-12 years by removing the outer layer of bark. In their natural state the Spanish cork oak woodlands of Andalusia, for example, have a rich shrub layer composed of Adenocarpus telonensis, Calicotoma spinosa, Cistus ladanifar, Daphne gnidium, Erica scoparia, Halimium halimifolium, Lavendula stoechas, Myrtus communis, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera, Stauracanthus boivinii and Thymelaea lanuginosa. Other shrubs include the dwarf fan palm Chamaeops humilis and the endemic Chamaespartium tridentatum (Fabaceae). Typical field layer species are Lithodora diffusa and Teucrium fruticans.
Iberian Pinus pinaster Forest
Maritime pine Pinus pinaster has its stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula where it mainly forms woods in coastal sandy areas. Iberian examples are characterized by the presence of Cistus, Erica, Cytisus, Genista and Ulex species. Other associated trees may include Scots pine Pinus sylvestris and the near endemic black pine Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii. Stands of maritime pine can also occur in the uplands. For example, some of the higher parts of the coastal mountains of the Costa del Sol, such as Sierra Bermeja, are covered in open maritime pine. Here the undergowth includes Alyssum serpyllifolium and Cistus populifolius together the endemic Armeria colorata (Plumbaginaceae) and Halimium atriplicifolium (Cistaceae), and in the more open patches the tiny annual Arenaria capillipes (Caryophyllaceae) occurs which is a local endemic to these mountains. In other parts of these coastal mountains Erica umbellatum becomes one of the main under storey species, and growing amongst it can be found the unusual endemic insectivorous plant Drosophyllum lusitanicum (Droseraceae) situated at the easternmost limit of its range. The genus Drosophyllum is also confined to the Iberian Peninsula. Other endemics associated with these forests include Narcissus cantabricus (Amaryllidaceae).
Iberian Pinus pinea Forest
Stone pine Pinus pinea, like maritime pine, is another largely coastal tree, and has its distribution centered on the Iberian Peninsula. It also occurs in the lower montane zones where there is slightly more precipitation. Forests of Pinus pinea tends to grow on richer soils and usually have well-developed shrub and field layers. Among the more typical shrubs is Clematis flammula, Cistus albidus, Cistus salvifolius, Daphne gnidium, Hedera helix, Pyracantha coccinea, Rubia peregrina and Ulex europaeus, while the field layer commonly includes Lathyrus clymenum, Linum perenne and the orchids Cephalanthera longifolia and Neotinea intacta. Extensive stone pine forests occur, for example, in the Algarve, which has the distinction of being the most southwesterly region of Europe. Here the scrub layer also includes the elegant white flowered broom Lygos monosperma, together withseveral endemic species such as Anchusa calcarea (Boraginaceae), Cistus libanotis and Tuberaria major (Cistaceae).
Iberian Pinus sylvestris Forest
Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris forms extensive forests in the Iberian mountains and are particularly well developed in the Central Sierras. Here the under scrub typically includes Adenocarpus telonensis, Erica arborea, Genista florida and Juniperus communis. These forests provide habitat for a variety of endemic species including Centaurea ornata and Doronicum carpetanum (Asteraceae), Dianthus laricifolius (Caryophyllaceae), Erodium carvifolium (Geraniaceae), Fritillaria hispanica (Liliaceae), Galium broterianum (Rubiaceae), Hispidella hispanica (Asteraceae), Linaria nivea and Linaria triornithophora (Scrophulariaceae), Ranunculus bulbosus subsp. gallecicus (Ranunculaceae).
Iberian Abies pinsapo Forest
These forests, dominated by the relict, endemic Spanish fir Abies pinsapo (Pinaceae), are now confined to a few montane sites around Ronda in southern Spain. They are thought to be remnants of a once much more extensive montane forests in Andalusia. The shrub layer usually includes Astragalus granatensis, Bupeurum spinosum, Cistus albidus, Erinacea anthyllis, Lonicera etrusca, Ononis reuteri, Phillyrea latifolia, Phlomis purpurea, Quercus fruticosa, Ulex parviflora, and the endemic Berberis hispanica (Berberidaceae), while the herbaceous elements typically comprise Colchicum triphyllum and the endemic Hyacinthoides hispanica (Hyacinthaceae).
Iberian Sub-Alpine Scrub Communities
At approximately 1600-2000m the vegetation, especially in some of the more arid regions, takes on a stunted often hedgehog appearance. This hedgehog form has developed in a number of genera including Astragalus, Bupleurum, Berberis, Echionospartum, Erinacea, Genista, Ptilotrichum and Vella, and includes many endemic species. In the Sierra Nevada, for example, these ‘hedgehog’ communities include endemic taxa such as Astragalus sempervirens subsp. navadensis (Fabaceae), Echinospartum boisseri (Boraginaceae) and Vella spinosa (Brassicaceae), together with other ‘hedgehog’ species like Astragalus granatensis, Bupleurum spinosum and Erinacea anthyllis. In other upland areas, such as the Sierra de Cazorla, the sub-alpine zone is characterised by dwarf junipers (Juniperus communis and J. sabina). Here again there are many endemic plants such as Globularia spinosa (Globulariaceae), Narcissus rupicola (Amaryllidaceae) and Prolongoa pectinata (Asteraceae).
Iberian Mountain Rock and Cliff Communities
The diverse geology of the Iberian Peninsula provides habitats for great variety of rock-loving plants including many endemic species. As is usually the case, it is the calcareous or base-rich rocks that support the most abundant floras. For example, one of the richest floras of Spain can be found on the Triassic and Jurassic limestone that make up the Serrania de Ronda in southeast Spain. Here the rocks and cliffs support a great variety of endemic species such as Linaria platycalyx (Scrophulariaceae), Narcissus rupicola subsp. pedunculatus (Amaryllidaceae), Ornithogalum reverchonii (Liliaceae), Omphalodes brassicifolia (Boraginaceae), Ptilostemon hispanicus, Senecio minutus (Asteraceae), Saxifraga boissieri and Saxifraga haenseleri (Saxifragaceae). Senecio minutus occurs on the summit ridge of El Pinar one of the heighest points on the range at 1654m.
Further east on the limestone terrain of the Sierra Tejeda and Sierra de Almijara, the south facing slopes, in particular are again rich in endemic species such as Echium albicans (Boraginaceae), Lavendula lanata (Lamiaceae), Linaria amoi (Scrophulariaceae) and Silene psammitis (Caryophyllaceae). Moving even further east to the Sierra Nevada, the highest mountain range in southwest Europe, reaching heights of about 3478 m, many more rock-loving endemics are encountered. Several of these, such as Arenaria nevadensis (Caryophyllaceae), Crocus nevadensis (Iridaceae), Eryngium glaciale, Meum nevadense (Apiaceae), Linaria glacialis (Scrophulariaceae), Ranunculus acetosellifolius (Ranunculaceae) and Saxifraga nevadensis (Saxifragaceae) are endemic to this mountain range. Even some of the summits are rich in endemics. Around the summit of Veleta, for example, endemic species such as Arenaria tetraquetra and Silene boryi (Caryophyllaceae), Erigeron frigidus (Asteraceae), Linaria aeruginea var. nevadensis (Scrophulariaceae), Lotus glareosus (Fabaceae), Plantago nivalis (Plantaginaceae) are common. These mountains also have magnificent scree slopes some of which are composed of slate and can be dark, forbidding looking places, but despite their barren appearance, they support a variety of interesting plants. Some of the endemic species of these scree slopes include Artemisia granatensis and Senecio boisseri (Asteraceae), Dianthus subacaulis subsp. brachyanthos (Caryophyllaceae) and Sempervivum nevadense (Crassulaceae). One of the more interesting endemic plants found, for example, in the Sierra de Cazorla is the Tertiary relict Viola cazorlensis (Violaceae), but this is just one of many other endemic species found in these mountains. Again calcareous rocks predominate including Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones. Other endemics species of these rocky terrains include Campanula specularioides (Campanulaceae), Centaurea granatensis (Asteraceae), Cleonia lusitanica (Capparidaceae), Narcissus hedraeanthus, N. longispathus (Amaryllidaceae) and Linaria lilacina (Scrophulariaceae), and on some of the summit screes the endemic Pterocephalus spathularis (Dipsacaceae) forms extensive patches.
The Sierra Morena (Dark Mountains) are predominantly composed of slate and grewacke and therefore likely to be less calcareous than some of the other sierras. Despite this the steep rocky slopes are again rich in endemic taxa such as Bufonia willkommiana, Dianthus crassipes and D. lusitanus (Caryophyllaceae), Digitalis purpureus subsp. mariana (Scrophulariaceae), Jasione crispa subsp. mariana (Campanulaceae) and Sideritis lacaitae (Lamiaceae).
Iberian Salt Steppe
Large areas along the coast of the eastern Costa del Sol and up to altitudes of 700m are characterized by saline conditions in which succulent members of the Chenopodiaceae predominate. Some such as Atriplex glauca and Salsola vermicularis are widespread, while others like Salsola genistoides and S. papillosa are endemic to southern Spain. These particular members of the Chenopodiaceae are frequently parasitized by a couple of strange plants - Cynomorium coccineum (Balanophoraceae), which produces unusual dark reddish-black, club-shaped flowers spikes, and the striking yellow flowered Cistanche phelypaea (Orobanchaceae) This areas also provide habitat for Frankenia corymbosa, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (a unusual species covered in sparkling crystal-like hairs), and two endemic sea lavenders Limonium furfuracea and the unusual pink flowered Limonium insigne (Plumbaginaceae).
Iberian Matorral
This Spanish terms refers to all evergreen bush communities including the different types of maquis (shrub communities of 1 m or more) and garigue (shrub communities of less than 0.5 m), and so comprises a wide variety of vegetation types. The following include examples rich in endemic species:
Iberian Cistus palhinhae Matorral
On the wind-swept headlands of Sagres and Cape St Vincent in the Algarve a type of matorral dominated by the endemic Cistus palhnhae has developed on these hard, calcareous, dolomitic rocks. It grows in low, compact bushes and is frequently associated with Cistus albidus, C. monspeliensis and C. salvifolius. Other commonly associated matorral shrubs are Corema album, Dorycnium hirstum and Juniperus phoenicea. Endemic shrubs found here include Helianthemum origanifolium (Cistaceae), Lithospermum diffusum subsp. lusitanica (Boraginaceae), Malva hispanica (Malvaceae) and Thymus camphoratus (Lamiaceae). Typical herbaceous elements are Anemone palmata, Dipcadi serotinum, Lithospermum apulum, Narcissus obesus, Onobrychis peduncularis and Silene colorata. Other endemic species associated with these headlands are Campanula lusitanica (Campanulaceae), Biscutella vincentina, Iberis procumbens (Brassicaceae), Linaria algarviana (Scrophulariaceae) and Scilla vincentina (Liliaceae).
Iberian Quercus coccifera Matorral (Garigue)
Kerme oak Quercus coccifera garigue is characteristic of calcareous slopes in the western Mediterranean such as the northern slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the limestone outcrops of the Sierra da Arrabida. In the Iberian Peninsula commonly associated shrubs may include Coronilla velentine subsp. glauca, Genista cinerea, Genista tournefortii, Jasminium fruticans, Juniperus oxycedrus, Lavendula multifida, Phlomis purpurea and Ulex parvula. In the Sierra da Arrabida some of the herbaceous species growing under the protection of the shrubs are Omphalodes linifolia, Tulipa australis and variety of orchids like Ophrys lutea, O. speculum, Orchis italica and O. papilionacea. This community is also rich in endemic species such as Astragalus lusitanicus (Fabaceae), Fritillaria lusitanica and Ornithogalum concinnum (Liliaceae).
Iberian Montane Maquis
This vegetation is mostly composed of evergreen shrubs due in part to their greater resistance to grazing. The most important and widespread species of this maquis (sometimes referred to as pseudomaquis) are Quercus coccifera, Buxus sempervirens and Juniperus oxycedrus, and usually occur where a deciduous oak climax community has been degraded. In Spain these widespread species may be associated with Acer granatense, Amelanchier ovalis and the endemic or near endemic Juniperus thurifera (Cupressaceae), Quercus faginea (Fagaceae) and Prunus lusitanica (Rosaceae).
Iberian Atlantic Coastal Dunes (Portugal)
Studies based on coastal dunes south of Carvoeiro Cape show that at least four major vegetation types occur here.
Strandline
Here the dominant taxa include Cakile maritima subsp. maritima, Euphorbia peplis and Salola kali. Honkenya peploides may also be present but becomes more common north of Peniche.
Embryonic Dunes
The dominant species of this early successional habitat is the sand binding grass Elymus farctus subsp. borealis-atlanticus, together with Calystegia soldanella, Euphorbia paralias, Eryngium maritimum and Pancratium maritimum.
Foredunes
Depending on location two associations have been recorded in this zone. From the Basque country to Penishe the main species are Ammophila arenaria subsp. australis, Calystegia soldanella, Eryngium maritimum, Medicago marina and Otanthus maritimus. South of this zone Ammophila arenaria subsp. australis, continues to be the dominant sand binding grass but the Mediterranean species Lotus creticus also becomes abundant. Also indendified here is a sub-association characterised by the local endemic Armeria welwitschii subsp. welwitschii occurrring in areas where there is contact between mobile and stable sand. Other species typical of this zone include Crucianella maritima, Helichrysum picardi, Ononis natrix subsp. ramosissima and the Iberian endemic Artemisia crithmifolia (Asteraceae).
Fixed (Grey) Dunes
In these stable areas two associations have been identified. This first which is endemic to southern Portugal is characterised by Crucianella maritima and the local endemic Armeria welwitschii subsp. welwitschi. Other typical species include Aetheorhiza bulbosa, Calendula suffruticosa subsp. algarbiensis, Carpobrotus edulis, Corynephorus canescens var. maritimus, Crucianella maritima, Cyperus capitatus, Euphorbia portlandica, Helichrysum picardi, Iberis procumbens subsp. procumbens, Linaria caesia subsp. decumbens, Lotus creticus, Malcolmia littorea, Ononis natrix subsp. ramosissima, Pancratium maritimum, Seseli tortuosum, Scrophularia frutescens, Sedum sediforme, Vulpia alopecurus, the Iberian endemic Artemisia crithmifolia and the Portugese endemic Verbascum litigiosum. This association ranges from Cascais to Quiaios where it is replaced by an Atlantic association typically characterised by Scrophularia frutescens and Vulpia alopecurus. Common taxa in this association include Herniaria ciliolata subsp. robusta, Leontodon arenarius and Seseli tortuosum, while less common are Anagalis monelli var. microphylla, Hydrocotyle bonariensis, Malcolmia littorea, Reichardia gaditana, Silene nicaeensis and others. This association is endemic to northwestern parts of the Iberian Peninsula. In spring time the clearings in both of these low-shrub formations are typically colonised by an endemic therophitic association characterised by taxa such as Erodium aethiopicum subsp. pilosum, Medicago littoralis, Polycarpon alsinifolium, Pseudorlaya minuscula, Senecio gallicus, Silene littorea. In the more fossilised dunes more mature vegetation can be found characterised by Juniperus turbinata. Other associated taxa include Antirrhinum majus subsp. cirrhigerum, Asparagus aphyllus, Daphne gnidium, Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea angustifoloa, Rubia peregrina var. longifolia, Smilax aspera var. mauritanica, and the Iberian endemic Corema album. Finally a Portuguese endemic low-shrub community characterised by the Iberian endemics Corema album and Stauracanthus genistoides can often be found under pine stands on interior dunes. Other taxa may include Halimium calycinum, Helichrysum picardi var. virescens and Ulex europaeus subsp. latebracteatus.
Iberian Saltmarsh
In southeast Spain between the provinces of Almeria and Alicante the salt marsh vegetation could be divided in to seven broad categories. These saltmarshes are known to have similarities with saltmarshes in the Mediterranean climate of California.
Shrubby Succulent Chenopod Zones
Forming near monspecific stands of Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Halocnemum strobilaceum or Sarcocornia fruticosa, these zones were generally confined to areas of high salinity and where temporary flooding occurred. The few other species found associated with these stands included Atriplex portulacoides, Frankenia corymbosa, Limonium cossonianum and Lycium intricatum.
Rush Zones
Comprising monspecific stands of either Juncus maritimus or Schoenus nigricans these zones where largely associated with depressions where groundwater levels were near to the surface. Other species included Carex extensa, Phragmites australis and Plantago coronopus.
Shrubby Limonium Zones
Including several species of Limonium in mixed or monspecific stands, these zones were confined to areas where no flooding occurred. Associated species included Astericus maritimus, Inula crithmoides, Plantago coronopus, Spergularia media, Thymelaea hirsuta and the Iberian endemics Limonium caesium and Limonium delicatulum.
Salt Steppe Grass Zones
Dominated by Lygeum spartum these zones were confined elevated areas. Associated species included Asparagus horridus, Asteriscus maritimus, Atriplex glauca, Helianthemum syriacum, Helianthemum violaceum, Helichrysum decumbens, Limonium parvibracteatum, Limonium santapolense, Lobularia maritima, Plantago coronopus, Plantago crassifolia, Scabiosa maritima, Sedum sediforme, Thymelaea hirsuta and the Iberian endemics Artemisia barrelieri, Centaurea aspera ssp. stenophylla and Limonium furfuraceum.
Halonitrophilous Shrub Zones
Dominated by Suaeda vera these zones were confined to the outermost areas that may have been ploughed in former times. Associated species included Asparagus horridus, Aster squamatus, Astericus maritimus, Atriplex glauca, Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima, Convolvulus arvensis, Conyza bonariensis, Dittrichia viscosa, Frankenia corymbosa, Inula crithmoides, Limonium angustebracteatum, Limonium cossonianum, Lycium intricatum, Malva parviflora, Piptatherum miliaceum, Plantago crassifolia, Salsola flavescens and the Iberian endemic Limonium caesium.
Open Thyme Brushwood Zones
Forming a transition to inland vegetation these zones comprised a mixture of halophilous and non halophilous species and included a variety of dominate species such as Ajuga iva, Erygium campestre and Paronychia capitata. Associated species included Anabasis hispanica, Dittrichia viscosa, Frankenia corymbosa, Launaea arborescens, Limonium cossonianum, Salsola papillosa and the Iberian endemics Limonium insigne and Santolina viscosa.References
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